Progressive career stages require different sets of problem- solving skills [Schermerhorn, pp. 110-112]. Sensation is direct observation. Intuition includes inference and perception. Thinking is the application of consistent rules and principles. Feeling is empathy.

• Introverted/Extroverted
• Sensing/iNtuitive
• Thinking/Feeling
• Judging/Perceiving

The Peter Principle says people often "rise to their levels of incompetence" [Klein, p. 327]. Dr. Laurence Peter was not the first person to recognize this principle. Carl von Clausewitz wrote, "There are commanders-in-chief who could not have led a cavalry regiment with distinction, and cavalry commanders who could not have led armies." [Clausewitz, Book 2, Ch. 2]

Performing well in one job may earn a promotion to a position the employee cannot handle. Scientists rely heavily on direct observation and physical laws. Scientists are usually Sensing-Thinking (ST). Marketing and sales personnel use intuitive and feeling skills (NF). However, direct management requires sensation and feeling (SF). Becoming and succeeding as a direct manager thus requires at least three skills. Middle and upper management require intuitive and thinking skills (NT). Progression to and success in these levels requires all four skills. Clausewitz' field marshal, like the upper manager, needed intuitive and thinking skills. He needed an intuitive grasp of the big picture. He had to perceive the overall situation through the fog of war. The regimental colonel, like the direct manager, needed sensation and feeling. He had to inspire his men in battle.

Suppose a professional is strong in thinking and sensation, but not in feeling. He or she will succeed as a technical professional, but not as a group manager or leader. This is the Peter Principle at work. The person rises to his or her "level of incompetence."

Three hundred and fifty years ago, Miyamoto Musashi showed the key to defeating the Peter Principle. He identified the basic skills long before business management became a science. He wrote,

Polish the twofold spirit heart and mind, and sharpen the twofold gaze perception and sight. [Void Book]

The strategist must have an internal locus of control. He or she must have virtù- boldness, bravery, resolution, and decisiveness.

Niccolò Machiavelli uses the words virtù and fortuna in his Art of War. [pp. liv-lvi, 7-8 ] Fortuna is what it sounds like- Fortune, Fate, and external circumstances. Virtù looks like "virtue," and its meaning is similar. It includes boldness, bravery, resolution, and decisiveness. Its opposite (ozio) includes inaction, indolence, and lack of energy. "Fortune may place us in particular circumstances, but whether we exert some control over our lives, instead of becoming the plaything of chance, depends upon our virtù." Appius Claudius Caecus (312-279 BCE) wrote, Faber est suae quisque fortunae. "Each man is the smith of his own fortune."

The Tarot deck includes a card for Strength. It means, "Courage, magnanimity, persistence, patience, spiritual power. Able to offset any bad luck in surrounding cards." [Aquarian Tarot, 1975] Its attributes are those of virtù. Like virtù, it can offset bad luck or the whims of Fortune. Its reverse means "weakness, possible loss of honor, and discord." Thus, we have the two opposites: virtù and ozio.

The Wheel of Fortune is another of the Tarot's Major Arcana. It means, "the ups and downs of life, constant change." Its reverse means, "The quality of your involvement will be the measure of your reward." Again we see two opposites: external and internal locus of control.

Siegfried became a hero by being the smith of his own fortune.

The idea of self-reliance appears in Wagner's opera Siegfried. Siegfried is a good Germanic hero. He doesn't know what fear is. He starts with a lot of potential because he is a Volsung- the race of heroes. However, he cannot succeed unless he takes destiny into his own hands. He has no sword! The Nibelung blacksmith Mime has the pieces of the sword Nothung, or "Needful." Nothung once belonged to Siegfried's father, Siegmund. The god Wotan had broken it with his spear. However, Mime lacks the skill to repair Nothung.

Mime wants Siegfried to kill the dragon Fafnir. Mime wants Fafnir's treasure, and he plans to poison Siegfried after Fafnir is dead. Mime tries to make a sword for Siegfried. Siegfried tests the quality of Mime's work by striking the anvil. The swords shatter, and he berates Mime as an incompetent bungler. Finally, Siegfried can stand no more. "My father's steel yields but to me. Let me fashion the sword!" [Wagner]

Mime urges Siegfried to solder Nothung's fragments together. Solder, an alloy of lead and tin, is soft and weak. It is no material for a hero's sword! Siegfried refuses this easy path, and does the job properly. He melts Nothung's fragments and pours them into a mold. Sparks fly as he hammers the blade. "Hammering blows make you strong and hard!" Finally, he plunges the blade into water. He applies the same quality test he used for Mime's work. "See, Mime, you smith, see how my sword can cleave!" The anvil splits in half under Nothung's edge.

This is a good lesson in self-reliance. Siegfried is indeed the smith of his own fortune. He slays Fafnir and wins the treasure. When Mime tries to poison him, he runs him through. Finally, he meets Wotan. Wotan challenges him, but this time his spear shatters under Nothung's blow.

The following story from Hagakure ("Hidden Leaves") [Yamamoto, pp. 121-122] summarizes the attitude that is proper for a warrior. It clearly shows the difference between an internal and an external locus of control. Lord Nabeshima Shima tells his father he wants to make a pilgrimage to the Atago Shrine. He wants to pray to the archery god for success in battle. Lord Nabeshima Aki angrily replies that this is worthless. If the god sides with the enemy, the Nabeshima vanguard should cut him in two!

Machiavelli's terms virtù and ozio apply to Tom Peters' "bias for action." Deficient leadership comes when the leaders see themselves as financial analysts, technological innovators, marketers, or statisticians. The leader should understand these disciplines, but not rely on them blindly. Hayes (1988) cites this deficiency in many American businesses. Carl von Clausewitz noted a similar deficiency in many European nations.

When business becomes too analytical, too concerned with the calculus of costs versus benefits and risks versus returns, it becomes prey to those who seek market share, the dynamics of growth, and a place in the sun. [Hayes, Ch. 1, p. 30]

Woe to the government which, relying on half-hearted politics and a shackled military policy, meets a foe who, like the untamed elements, knows no law other than his own power! Any defect of action and effort will turn to the advantage of the enemy --- [Clausewitz, Book 3, Ch. 16]

Unless an enterprising martial spirit is in command, a man who is as much at home in war as a fish is in water, or unless great responsibilities exert a pressure, inactivity will be the rule and progress the exception. [Clausewitz, Book 3, Ch. 16] The first of these [determinants], which creates a permanent tendency toward delay and thus becomes a retarding influence, is the fear and indecision native to the human mind. It is a sort of moral force of gravity, which, however, works by repulsion rather than attraction: namely, aversion to danger and responsibility. [Clausewitz, Book 3, Ch. 16]

(1) Genuine concern for the welfare of subordinates, superiors, the organization, and customers.

Stewardship is a key concept, as discussed in Chapter 1. Sun Tzu's ideal general does not advance to seek fame. He does not retreat to avoid punishment. He seeks only to protect the interests of the people (employees) and sovereign (stockholders). [Sun Tzu, Chapter X]

Serving others is the essence of Kshatriya Dharma and Bushido. This service orientation makes the leader more valuable to the organization. It helps him or her command the respect and loyalty of subordinates. This makes the leader more effective. The section on Commitment will discuss this further. Even the owner of a company serves others by fostering the welfare of customers and employees. In turn, they give the owner continuing patronage and loyal service.

The ending of Anthony Hope's Prisoner of Zenda shows an incentive for lifelong practice. The hero, Rudolf Rassendyll, had a swordfight with the villain, Rupert Hentzau. The fight was inconclusive, and Hentzau escaped. "[Perhaps] I have yet a hand to play with young Rupert; therefore I exercise myself in arms, and seek to put off the day when the vigor of youth must leave me."

In business, Rupert Hentzau is the competitor who wants your market share. He may be a younger employee who wants your job. Through continuing professional development, you can stay ahead of him.

(4) Willingness to abandon past methods in adapting to changing circumstances. Avoidance of prejudices and preconceptions.

Preconceived ideas, attitudes, and prejudices are self- constraints. The competitive environment and opposition create enough constraints and barriers. Preconceptions and attitudes exist only in one's mind. The strategist does not create barriers and constraints where none exist.

Oh Fortune, as the moon everchanging you are always waxing or waning--- The wheel of Fortune turns --- [Carl Orff, "Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi" (Fortune, Empress of the World), from Carmina Burana]

Sun Tzu also wrote of changing circumstances, and the cycles of the moon. [Chapter VI] Miyamoto Musashi noted the rise and fall of capital in the Way of the Merchant. Tom Peters tells of the oncoming tide of chaos. Fortune's wheel turns more quickly now. Virtù is the strong hand at the tiller that lets us navigate the storm. An internal locus of control helps us sail the tempest and fight our guns in it as well.